The academic journal “the Near East and Georgia” is published by the G. Tsetereli Institute of Oriental Studies of the Ilia State University. The following are the key areas of the works published in the journal: oriental linguistics; history, literature and contemporary culture of oriental peoples; Georgia’s centuries-old cultural relations with Eastern countries; current political, social, economic, cultural and religious processes in the countries of the Near East and the Middle East; study of Islam and inter-confessional relations; geopolitical problems in the Middle East; the Caucasus and Central Asia in the regional and global contexts. Online ISSN: 2960-9224 Print ISSN: 2587-4780
დავუდალი სეფიანის „დიდი ფერეიდანის გეოგრაფია“
ფერეიდნელი ქართველი, დოქტორი დავუდალი სეფიანი არის ირანის თავისუფალი ისლამური უნივერსიტეტის არქიტექტურისა და ურბანიზაციის კათედრისა და ფაიამე ნურის უნივერსიტეტის გეოგრაფიის კათედრის ლექტორი. მისი ნაშრომი „დიდი ფერეიდანის გეოგრაფია“ აგრძელებს ირანში მცხოვრები ქართველი მკვლევრების ტრადიციას, რომელიც გულისხმობს ირანში ქართველებით დასახლებული რეგიონებისა თუ ცალკეული ქალაქებისა და სოფლების გეოგრაფიის, ისტორიის, კულტურისა და ეთნოგრაფიის შესწავლას. ჩვენთვის ცნობილი პირველი ასეთი ნაშრომი, რომელიც ფერეიდანს ეხება, 1979 წელს დაწერა და გამოსცა ფერეიდნელმა ქართველმა მოჰამად სეფიანიმ. მას შემდეგ მრავალი წიგნი და ბროშურა დაიბეჭდა ირანელი ქართველების მიერ, რომელთა შესახებ მკითხველი ინფორმაციას მიიღებს გრიგოლ ბერაძისა და ნიკოლოზ ნახუცრიშვილის სტატიიდან.
ჟიულ ვერნის ცნობები თბილისის შესახებ (თარგმანი ფრანგულიდან და შენიშვნები ირინე ნაჭყებიასი)
პროფ. ალექსანდრე გვახარიას (1929-2002) „რუდაქის პოეტიკა“ პირველად პოეტის საიუბილეოდ გამოცემულ სამეცნიერო კრებულში სხვა ქართველ მკვლევართა ნაშრომებს შორის გამოაქვეყნდა (რუდაქი 1100, თბილისის უნივერსიტეტის გამომცემლობა, 1957). ეს ვრცელი სტატია ერთი წლით უსწრებს ალ. გვახარიას მონოგრაფიას „იოსებზილიხანიანის“ ქართული ვერსიების სპარსული წყაროების შესახებ (ფილოლოგიის მეცნიერებათა კანდიდატის სამეცნიერო ხარისხის მოსაპოვებლად რომ წარადგინა იმავე წელს). ამ დროს მისი ავტორი 28 წლისაა. 1995 წელს მეცნიერს „რუდაქის პოეტიკის“ უმნიშვნელოდ რედაქტირებული ვარიანტი თავისი „ნარკვევების“ პირველ ტომშიც შეუტანია („ნარკვევები ქართულ-სპარსული ლიტერატურული ურთიერთობის ისტორიიდან“). აქ წარმოდგენილი ტექსტი სწორედ 1995 წლის გამოცემიდან ავიღეთ.
The Contribution of Georgian Scientists to the Study of Avicenna's Thought
The greatest thinker, Avicenna, had a great influence on the development of sciences in the Middle Ages, both in the East and in the West, and left humanity a huge scientific heritage. Within the framework of the Islamic religion, he was able to critically assimilate ancient philosophy and science and systematize all the knowledge of his time. The article highlights the significant contributions of Georgian scholars to the exploration of Avicenna's thought. In 1966, the renowned semitologist Vladimir Akhvlediani published an Arabic text of Avicenna's phonetic treatise, accompanied by a Russian translation and a related study. Musicologist Boris Gulisashvili focused on Avicenna's studies in the so-called "Order of Quints" for his doctoral dissertation. Academician Giorgi Jibladze's exoteric essay, "Avicenna's Systems," delves into Avicenna's philosophical, aesthetic, and artistic legacy. The National Center for Manuscripts holds a 160-page manuscript of Avicenna, copied in the 14th century, which was analyzed by semitologist Liana Samkurashvili. She presented her findings at a conference dedicated to Avicenna in Dushanbe in 1980. Additionally, medical historian Nani Khelaia revealed that Avicenna’s name first appears in a Georgian medical text commissioned by Queen Tamar.
Avicenna in the Georgian scientific space
T. Gamkrelidze, V. Ivanov: The Secret of the Indo-European Pre-Homeland
"The Secret of the Indo-European Pre-Homeland" – under this title, the journal Nauka v SSSR (No. 2, pp. 80-92) published an interview with T. Gamkrelidze and V. Ivanov in 1981, three years before the release of their famous monograph Indo-European Language and Proto-Indo-Europeans (Гамкрелидзе Т.В., Иванов В.В., Индоевропейский язык и индоевропейцы. Реконструкция историко-типологического анализа праязыка и пракультуры, ТГУ, vol. 1-2, Tbilisi 1984). The authors were awarded the Lenin Prize for this work. Despite the fact that 43 years have passed since the interview was published, the ideas presented here remain relevant, and I believe it would be interesting to revive them. In the interview, T. Gamkrelidze and V. Ivanov discuss in detail the historical-comparative method of reconstructing the proto-language, addressing the following questions: What is the proto-homeland? Who spoke these languages, and when? What did these people talk about? What is reflected in their language? What did they create, trade, and think about? What were their customs, myths, and so on? The authors explain the structure of a thematic dictionary compiled from the reconstructed words and texts of the Proto-Indo-European language, which includes three main groups of concepts: the living environment, material and spiritual culture, and social organization. Each concept presented in the dictionary is not limited to linguistic data; it is thoroughly explained, taking into account information from other fields such as paleobotany, paleozoology, history, mythology, archaeology, anthropology, etc. The migration routes of Indo-European tribes are also discussed, along with the reasons why the Indo-Europeans, descending from the mountains, did not stay at the foot but instead continued moving farther from the homeland of their ancestors.
The Revolution in the Iranian Shia Clergy: Demotion of Ayatollah Shariatmadari
Ayatollah Seyyed Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari (1906-1986) was one of the leading figures of the 1979 Iranian Revolution and one of the few senior Shia clerics with a political vision different from Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Shariatmadari was a traditionalist cleric and did not support Khomeini’s concept of Velayat-e Faqih (rule of the Islamic jurisprudent). Shariatmadari had a considerable political influence, especially in his native Tabriz, and the Islamic People’s Republican Party, associated with him, was one of the prominent parties participating in the revolution. The party is also worth mentioning because there were a few non-Khomeinist Islamist parties during the revolution. However, a figure like Shariatmadari was a challenge for the regime, and in 1982, he was implicated in an alleged coup attempt and banished from political life, dying four years later in house arrest. More importantly, Shariatmadari was demoted from the rank of Grand Ayatollah, which was a sign of another revolution by Khomeini, this time in the Shia clerical hierarchy. Shariatmadari’s demotion was an indication of a new era in the Iranian clerical hierarchy, in which the clerical ranks were decided by the country’s political power.
Jihadi Groups in International Conflicts
The article analyzes the role of Islamic Jihadi groups in international conflicts. The research concerns three armed conflicts in which Islamic Jihadi groups expressed their positions. Two of them are ongoing conflicts in Ukraine (since 2022) and Gaza (since 2023), and the third one was the second war in Karabagh. These significant armed conflicts were considered by Jihadi groups as a good possibility for fighting and gaining experience, although they had different positions on all of them. So, the article tries to show the attitudes and strategies of Jihadi groups to understand what motivates them to participate in international conflicts or not.
Turkey’s Strategic Role in European Energy Security: Implications of the Energy Sector for Political Cooperation
Turkey’s strategic location between energy-producing regions and Europe positions it as a central actor in European energy security. The Southern Gas Corridor has enhanced Turkey’s role as a transit hub, allowing the European Union to diversify its gas supplies and reduce dependence on Russia. Despite diversification efforts, Turkey remains dependent on Russian gas, which accounted for 42.3% of total imports in 2024, creating political tensions with the EU. This dual reality highlights the complexity of Turkey’s position: while indispensable for European energy security, it faces structural vulnerabilities that influence its political leverage and cooperation with the EU. Agreements with neighboring countries, such as Georgia, further strengthen Turkey’s transit capacity, enabling alternative energy routes and enhancing regional resilience. However, divergent energy policies, reliance on fossil fuels, and geopolitical alignments limit the potential for energy cooperation to fully resolve broader political disputes. This study demonstrates that Turkey’s growing energy role has both economic and political implications, reinforcing its importance in European energy security while simultaneously generating challenges for EU–Turkey relations.
The Influence of the Russia-Ukraine War on North Caucasian Separatist and Jihadist Movements
In 2022, the invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation and the beginning of full-scale war gave new impetus to North Caucasian separatist and jihadist forces. This process contributed to the deepening of cooperation among a number of groups, the emergence of new political entities, and the formation of units fighting on the side of Ukraine. In some cases, the new alliances include forces with a jihadist past, who agree to employ not only religious but also national ideology in the struggle against Russia. This tendency may be assessed as an adaptation of part of the North Caucasian national movements to Islamism. The present study is one of the first attempts to examine and analyze the influence of the ongoing war in Ukraine on Caucasian separatist and jihadist movements. The theoretical basis of the research relies on an interdisciplinary approach that combines elements of social constructivism and social movement theory. For data collection, semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with representatives of North Caucasian separatist movements. In addition, research was carried out on separatist and jihadist media resources in the online space using the method of digital ethnography. The study analyzes the common goals of North Caucasian national-liberation movements, their political projects, the process of forming associated combat units, online activities, and the growing influence of Islamism on pro-independence groups. Separatist movements consider national independence and, in the long term, different models of a common Caucasian state. By contrast, for the terrorist organization Caucasus Emirate, the only acceptable model is a unified, independent Sharia-based North Caucasus, which is why it categorically rejects cooperation with democratic separatist forces. At the same time, the Caucasian branch of the Islamic State views the region solely as one province within the global caliphate.
The Role of the United states in the Iran–Saudi Arabia Rivalry for Regional Influence
In the Middle East, where numerous states aspire to exert influence and achieve regional dominance, the rivalry between Iran and Saudi Arabia holds particular significance. This discord stems from several key factors. In addition to historical confessional and ideological differences, the dynamics of this relationship and, consequently, the balance of power in the region are also shaped by another crucial factor: the United States and its policy toward both actors, as well as the region as a whole. The Iran–Saudi Arabia rivalry traces its origins back to 1979, when the Islamic Revolution in Iran gave rise to a new, hostile regime and fundamentally altered the existing status quo in the region. However, the competition between the two countries for regional leadership became more pronounced after 2003, when the regime change in Iraq enabled Iran to begin expanding its influence across the region. Accordingly, this article examines U.S.-Saudi Arabia relations and the political approach toward Iran from 2003 to the present, under successive U.S. administrations. It explores how these policies have significantly influenced the regional rivalry between Riyadh and Tehran for strategic dominance. Over the past two decades, the shifting approaches of the Bush, Obama, Trump, and Biden administrations toward both their ally Riyadh and their adversary Tehran have had tangible consequences for the balance of power in the Middle East.
Syria after Bashar al-Assad's Fall - Changes and Challenges
The Syrian conflict, which began in 2011, has evolved into one of the longest and most devastating wars in the modern history of the Middle East. The situation has been characterized by political complexities, ethno-sectarian confrontations, large-scale forced migration, and the involvement of external powers, resulting in a transformative crisis for the country. By the end of 2024, the overthrow of Bashar al-Assad’s regime and the subsequent transfer of power to Ahmad al-Sharaa (also known as Abu Muhammad al-Julani) and the transitional government marked a new chapter not only in Syria’s domestic affairs but also within the regional international system. This article examines the key directions that shape the country’s political reality in the post-Assad era. The formation of the new government and sources of legitimacy present two main tasks for Al Sharaa’s administration during the power transition: first, to consolidate legitimate authority among various social groups; and second, to restore state institutions and ensure their effective functioning. The new leader, previously linked to Islamist military-political structures, endeavored to shift the focus from armed resistance to political governance. His primary sources of legitimacy stemmed from two factors: external support, evidenced by the recognition of the transitional government by Western nations; and internal agreements, notably the historic deal reached with Kurdish factions. Nevertheless, Syria’s political agenda continues to highlight the challenges of state consolidation.
The Personalistic System of Government, Erdoganism
The liberal reforms, economic development, and moderate foreign policy implemented in the first decade of the 2000s have made Turkey a force to be reckoned with on the world stage, especially in the Middle East. During this period, Turkey was seen as a Muslim country with a quasi-democratic government, a liberal economy, and modern values. However, following the 2013 Gezi Park protests, Erdogan’s political course has undergone significant changes, and his rule has taken on an increasingly authoritarian form. It is more acceptable for us to define the regime as Erdoganism, which is characterized by four main factors: electoral authoritarianism in the electoral system, neopatrimonialism in the economic system, populism as a political strategy, and Islamism as a political ideology. Like its predecessor Kemalism, Erdoganism is also a personalistic ideology.
Religion and Culture in Iran’s Foreign Policy
The Islamic Republic of Iran is a distinctive example of international relations in which statecraft and foreign policy are intertwined with religion and culture. Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran has sought to establish itself as a contemporary nation-state while simultaneously serving as the guardian of the Islamic ideological initiative. This duality has had a substantial impact on its interactions with neighboring regions, particularly the South Caucasus, where historical, cultural, and religious linkages intersect with geostrategic concerns. This paper analyzes the conceptual frameworks that inform Iranian foreign policy, focusing on religion and culture, while contextualizing them within international history and applying them to the South Caucasus case study.
0vercoming Ecclesiastical Schism: Coercion, Dialogue, and the Politics of Unity in the Byzantium
This article analyzes the primary tactics employed by the Christian Church, particularly within the Byzantine tradition, to address and resolve ecclesiastical schism. It delineates two principal methodologies: coercion and negotiation. Coercion, frequently implemented via imperial authority, was rationalized by theological considerations for upholding orthodoxy and by political necessities for sustaining municipal order. Case examples encompass the repression of the Donatists during Constantine's reign, the aggressive actions of Justinian I, and subsequent occurrences where patriarchs openly advocated for emperors to persecute dissenters. Although leaders like St. Augustine ultimately advocated for coercion as a remedial measure, some of the Church Fathers, including St. Ambrose of Milan and St. John Chrysostom, dismissed violence as inconsistent with Christian doctrine and engaged in direct confrontation with emperors. In conjunction with compulsion, negotiation surfaced as a concurrent approach, evident in ecumenical councils, imperial-mediated discussions, and bilateral theological conversations. Theological controversies on Christology, papal supremacy, and liturgical practices were sometimes intertwined with political agendas, exemplified by the unions of Lyons (1274) and Florence (1439), both primarily motivated by Byzantine requests for Western assistance. The essay emphasizes that such agreements persisted only when they garnered widespread acceptance among both clergy and people and when they permitted conceptual flexibility and liturgical heterogeneity. The study highlights the intricate relationship among theology, politics, and culture in influencing attempts to resolve ecclesiastical divisions.
Biblical Prophetic Passages - “Haftaroth” / “הפטרות“ and Its Georgian Version
After the massive “aliyah” (repatriation) of Georgian Jews to Israel, which began in the 1970s, numerous Georgian-language publications were released in Israel, including periodicals, fiction, scientific literature, and journalistic as well as genre-specific materials. These were processed within the framework of a three-year research project, resulting in the creation of an annotated bibliography of printed publications. The project included genre classification and literary-linguistic analysis. Considering that the life of any Jew was always and everywhere regulated by religious customs, religion serves as the foundation for their survival and existence. Therefore, a significant emphasis was placed on discussing works of a religious nature within the study material. Following repatriation, Georgian Jews, characterized by a high level of religious self-awareness, continued to show an interest in religious books while preserving their traditions. They published collections on various topics, including prophetic passages, information on basic Torah issues, profiles of prominent rabbis in the Georgian Jewish community, basic prayers in Hebrew, translations of prayers and mitzvot, the rules of Halakhah (שֻׁלְחָן עָרוּךְ) in Georgian, teachings on Judaism in modern conditions, its attributes and theology, and most importantly, new translations of the books of the Bible. A significant contribution to the field of religious studies is made by the philosophical researcher and translator Shalom David, who has published works on Jewish-Kabbalist philosophy, translations of canonical prayers, books of the Bible, and the collection “Haftaroth” from Hebrew into Georgian. Despite the substantial religious significance and practice, many Jewish communities do not have a translation of the “Haftaroth.” However, this collection by Shalom David stands out and occupies an honorable place among the publications of the Georgian-language religious literature in Israel. This article examines and characterizes the Georgian version of the “Haftaroth” and highlights its significance and substantial role in the religious life of Georgian Jews. In Jewish liturgy, the “Haftara” is a ritual of great importance. To emphasize its significance, the article first discusses, in general terms, the nature, purpose, and history of this religious ritual, the relationship of the reading material to the Torah, the rules of reading, and other important issues related to this topic. It then explores how this essential ritual is reflected among Georgian Jews.
The Importance of the Sea, Rivers, and Water Resources in the Lazic War (541–562 CE)
The Lazic War (541–562 CE), fought between the Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Iran in the Kingdom of Lazica (present-day western Georgia), illustrates the central role of rivers, sea, and water resources in warfare of Late Antiquity. Western Georgia’s abundance of waterways meant that armies rarely faced shortages of drinking water, even during sieges, yet these waterways shaped military strategy in decisive ways. Prokopios, Agathias, and other contemporary authors emphasize the Phasis (Rioni) river and its tributaries as both natural obstacles and vital transport routes. Fortresses were positioned along river valleys, while rivers themselves enabled the movement of troops, supplies, and even fleets. Byzantine and Sasanian armies employed various methods to cross or control rivers, from fording with cavalry and elephants to constructing pontoon bridges or artificially altering river courses to create defensible positions. The Black Sea coastline was equally strategic. While the Sasanians initially attempted to establish a fleet, their failure after the fall of Petra left Byzantium in firm control of maritime communications. This access allowed the Byzantines to transport reinforcements and supplies by sea, ensuring the sustainability of their military presence. Conversely, the Persians relied on overland routes through Iberia, which created chronic difficulties in provisioning their forces. Overall, the Lazic War demonstrates how the natural environment—especially rivers and the sea—could shape the course of conflict in late antiquity. Water resources served as lifelines for armies and animals, determined settlement and fortress locations, and provided key logistical and strategic advantages. In Lazica, Byzantine control of the Black Sea coast and effective use of river networks, together with their alliance with the Lazi, proved decisive in securing victory over the Sasanians.
History, Primary Sources Studies, Numismatics
The Letter of Patriarch John II of Antioch (631–648) to Marutha of Tagrit and Its Significance for the History of the Iberian Church
Patriarch John II of Antioch (631–648) was the head of the Syriac Orthodox Church. He was one of the most distinguished figures of the Syriac Orthodox Church, and the faithful venerate him as a saint within this tradition. Of particular interest and importance for the history of the Georgian Church is the letter of John of Antioch to Marutha, Metropolitan of Tagrit (628/629–649) and head of the Syriac Orthodox Church of the East. This epistle holds special significance, as it represents one of the earliest extant sources testifying to the subordination of the Iberian Church to the patriarchal see of Antioch. Georgian historians have long been aware of this letter and have utilized it in their studies concerning the original canonical status of the Iberian Church, as well as questions of its autocephaly. Unfortunately, however, to this day, the letter has not been subjected to a dedicated and detailed investigation in relation to the history of the Georgian Church. In the present article, I have sought to fill this scholarly gap. The study examines the time and circumstances in which the letter was composed, its purpose, and its reliability. For the first time in Georgian scholarship, we publish here the complete Georgian translation of the correspondence between Patriarch John II of Antioch and Marutha of Tagrit, accompanied by relevant commentary.
The Perception of King Heraclius II of Kartli-Kakheti among the Leaders of the Armenian Liberation Movement in the Second Half of the 18th Century (Joseph Emin, Movses Sarafov, Hovsep Arghutian, and Shahamir Shahamirian)
This article examines the role of King Heraclius II of Kartli-Kakheti in the Armenian liberation movement during the second half of the 18th century and aims to analyze this topic within the broader historical and geopolitical dynamics of the South Caucasus. Employing source-based and comparative methodologies, it explores the relations between Armenian and Georgian individuals, as well as their cooperative responses to shared external threats. The research highlights how, during a period of rising Armenian liberation aspirations and the geopolitical rivalry of great powers, Armenian leaders such as Joseph Emin, Movses Sarafov, Hovsep Arghutian, and Shahamir Shahamirian perceived Heraclius II as pivotal in their efforts to restore Armenian statehood. Special attention is given to Heraclius II's political capabilities, the challenges posed by Ottoman and Iranian dominance and Russian imperial ambitions, all of which shaped the nature of Armenian-Georgian collaboration. Through a chronological analysis, this article examines the nature, objectives, and specific circumstances of the relations between Heraclius II and the leaders of the Armenian liberation movement. It aims to contribute to the study of Armenian-Georgian political history and serve as a resource for scholars interested in this field.
The Telavi Hoard of Clipped Umayyad Dirhams
This study examines a hoard of clipped Umayyad dirhams discovered in 2022 in the environs of Telavi, a city in eastern Georgia. The hoard comprised only Umayyad dirhams, reportedly numbering between 20 and 25, including: Dimashq – 2 (11.8%); Wāsiṭ – 11 (64.7%); Al-Kūfah – 1 (5.9%); Al-Baṣrah – 2 (11.8%); Fīl (a rare mint of unknown location) – 1 (5.9%). The coins span the years AH 89–120, and the terminus ante quem non for the hoard, determined by its latest coin, is AH 120 (737/8). It was presumably deposited in the late 730s or 740s. Before deposition, all of the dirhams had been clipped in a way that preserved their circular form but affected their weight. The average weight is 1.58 g (range: 1.49–1.69 g), calculated from seven clipped but unfragmented, weighed specimens. The historical significance of this hoard derives from its unique composition and findspot: It represents the earliest hoard datable to the period of Arab dominance in Georgia; It contains only Umayyad dirhams, without any admixture of Sasanian drachms that had circulated locally before the Arab conquest; and It consists solely of dirhams that were clipped to an as-yet-unclarified standard. The Umayyad silver may have entered the monetary system of areas remote from Tiflīs as early as the 740s.
Reports from European Travellers about Tbilisi's Population (the Second Half of the 19th Century)
The present article draws upon the personal narratives of European travellers who visited Tbilisi during the latter half of the nineteenth century. These accounts offer insights into the ethno-religious composition of the city's population. The content of this information is derived from travellers' observations in various urban locations, namely the streets, markets and gardens of the city. The Tbilisi market has been termed the 'Babylon of ethnicities and languages', and the clothing and activities of different peoples are described in meticulous detail. The following article presents an overview of the nature and activities of the native population of Tbilisi, which comprises Georgians, Armenians, Tatars, Persians, as well as Russians, Germans, and French who have settled in the city since the beginning of the 19th century. The French diplomat Jules Patennotre is quoted as having described Tbilisi as a "hybrid city", in which diverse elements coexist, but do not amalgamate. As posited by Belgian traveller Carla Serena, Tbilisi can be regarded as a model of the Caucasus, encompassing a multitude of ethnic and cultural groups. Consequently, during the 19th century, Tbilisi assumed a pivotal multicultural role. The coexistence of representatives of different nationalities and religions in this city was a distinctive characteristic that contributed to its cultural and historical significance. While the accounts of European travellers may not be entirely objective, the material preserved in their writings is an invaluable research source regarding Georgia.
The Issue of Okinawa's Reversion to Japan
At the end of World War II, following a brutal battle, the Okinawa Prefecture was occupied by American forces and placed under the administration of the United States. In 1951, the U.S. consolidated its position through the “San Francisco Peace Treaty,” according to which Japan officially ceded temporary administrative control of Okinawa Prefecture to the United States. In November 1969, an agreement was reached between the United States and Japan, and the two countries commenced official negotiations regarding the reversion of the Okinawa Islands. On June 17, 1971, the “Agreement between Japan and the United States of America Concerning the Ryukyu Islands and the Daito Islands” was signed, taking effect on May 15, 1972. As a result, Okinawa Prefecture was reintegrated into Japan after a 27-year separation. This study will review various circumstances and facts that had a significant impact on the reintegration of Okinawa Prefecture into Japan.
The Status of the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem in the Firman issued by Sultan Suleiman I in 1538 and its Consequences
Sultan Selim I (1512-1520) in 1517 issued a decree by which the churches and monasteries, among which the “Gurjs' Monastery of the Cross” is named, were transferred and remained under the authority of the Patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Jerusalem Dorotheos II Atala (1505-1537). Sultan Suleiman I (1520-1566) in 1538 presented a firman to Patriarch Germanos of Jerusalem (1537-1579). In this firman, the churches and monasteries of Jerusalem are named in the same order as in the firman issued by Selim I in 1517, except that the Jvari (Cross) Monastery is referred to as the “Jvari Monastery of the Mingrelian - Gurjs”. Naturally, the following questions arise: 1. When did it happen, and what caused this change? 2. What impact did the new status have on the Jerusalem Monastery of the Cross? The research revealed: The king of Imereti, Bagrat III (1510-1565), in 1535 annexed Samtskhe to Imereti, and gave Adjara and Chaneti to Gurieli. This fact caused discontent of Levan Dadiani – "duke" of Odishi. He visited Sultan Suleiman between 1535 and 1538 and pledged allegiance to him. In return, the Sultan confirmed Levan Dadiani’s right to the Jvari Monastery. For this reason, Levan Dadiani later refused Bagrat III to participate in the battles against the Ottomans in 1543 and 1545. The disagreements between the Georgian kings and rulers also affected the Georgian churches and monasteries in Jerusalem. In the second half of the 16th century, the Georgians lost several monasteries. The Cross Monastery was in dire economic straits due to increased taxes by the Ottoman authorities. From the beginning of the 17th century, in the Cross monastery, two igumens have been confirmed – one from Eastern Georgia, the other from Western Georgia. It is possible that the firman of 1538 became the basis for the appointment of two igumens in the Cross Monastery. However, this issue has yet to be clarified.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and Turkish Secularism
The study and analysis of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the issues of Turkish secularism/laicism arose because Georgian historiography did not pay sufficient attention to this problem, and there are no fundamental scientific works on the subject. In our previous work, we analyzed Turkish secularism in a continuous chain, enabling us to visualize both its historical aspects and contemporary reality to some extent. In the study, we aimed to identify and clarify the problems that arose in their relationship. The work concerns the attitude of M. K. Atatürk, the study of the issue of Turkish secularism/laicism using the method of critical analysis. The study and analysis of the above issues enabled us to clearly understand the problem's main issues and its historical aspects. The work clearly presents the issues of secularism and presents modern approaches to Turkish secularism in a new way.
The Prophetic Legend of Emperor Marcian in Byzantine Historiography
The article examines the intersection of social hierarchy, captivity, and divine symbolism through the legend of Emperor Marcian (r. 450–457) as narrated by Procopius of Caesarea (6th c), Evagrius Svholasticus (6th c.), and Theophanes the Confessor (8th-9th c.). While generally, the social status of prisoners of war in Byzantium and among its adversaries largely determined their treatment and future fate, the case of Marcian represents a paradox. According to the narrative, the future emperor was captured as a low-ranking soldier by the Vandal king Gaiseric, but spared after a prophetic omen foretelling his rise to the throne: as an eagle shaded him from the sun. The study argues that this legend should be understood as a Byzantine tradition aimed at legitimizing Marcian’s unexpected rise to power following the death of Theodosius II in 450 CE through divine signs. In particular, the eagle signifies a protective and providential intervention, marking Marcian as divinely chosen for imperial authority. Captivity, in this context, functions as a ritual of divine selection and salvation, echoing the biblical motif of the righteous sufferer whose temporary imprisonment becomes a sign of divine election and future glorification, as in the cases of Joseph in Egypt or Daniel in Babylon.
History of the First Embassy sent on a Mission upon the Initiative of King Boris Godunov to the Safavid State
The primary objective of the present work is to highlight the embassy organized by the Muscovite State to Safavid Iran at the beginning of the 17th century. The embassy, whose history is presented differently in the scientific literature, played a significant role in strengthening the diplomatic relations between these two states. This embassy, established between 1600 and 1603, was the first sent to the Shah of Iran on the initiative of the new King of the Muscovite State, Boris Godunov (1598-1605). It should be noted that the Ottoman-Iranian War began in 1578 and ended in 1590 with the Treaty of Istanbul, resulting in significant discontent in both the Muscovite State and Western European countries. As a result, diplomatic relations between the Muscovite State and Safavid Iran were temporarily suspended. In the 1590s, the issue of establishing a military-political alliance with Safavid Iran was again raised in the Muscovite State. That’s why the Muscovite State re-established the interrupted relations with Iran and attempted to form a military alliance with the Safavid State against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. In 1600, at the initiative of King Boris Godunov, an embassy was sent to the Shah of Iran, headed by Alexander Fyodorovich Zhirovoy-Zasekin and Temir Vasilyevich Zasetsky. The primary objective of this embassy was to negotiate a bilateral treaty with Iran, which would entail broad cooperation in all areas, including military affairs. This political alliance was primarily aimed at the Ottoman Empire, which was attempting to make peace with Austria and subsequently intended to direct all its forces against Iran. There are different opinions in the academic literature regarding the history of the embassy of A. F. Zhirovoy-Zasekin and T. V. Zasetsky. According to one version, this embassy did not achieve its goal because, for unknown reasons, it was returned from Astrakhan to Moscow. According to another version, this embassy reached Iran and held negotiations with the Shah of Iran. After comparing the data of various historians, we believe that the embassy of Alexander Zhirovoy-Zasekin and Temir Zasetsky managed to reach Iran and hold negotiations with the Shah of Iran. We believe that the response to this Russian embassy was the fact that Shah Abbas immediately sent his embassy to Moscow, thereby informing King Boris Godunov that the Iranian side was starting a war against the Ottoman Empire. The embassy of Lachin Beg (1602-1604), along with the embassy of Zhirovoy-Zasekin, departed Iran for the Muscovite State in the fall of 1602. It arrived in Moscow on August 28, 1603, and in early September, it was presented to King Boris Godunov.
Once Upon a Time in Riau: People and Society in the Documents of the Riau-Lingga Shariah Court (Early 20th Century)
The collection of documents of the Riau–Lingga Shariah Court (Mahkamah Syariah Kerajaan Lingga), preserved in the local museum of the administrative center of Daik (Lingga Island, present-day Indonesia), constitutes a corpus of judicial verdicts concerning various types of commercial transactions, financial obligations, and property disputes. The collection comprises approximately 350 documents written in Malay Jawi script and dating from the early 20th century (1905–1908). Among the materials preserved in the collection are debt obligations, verdicts imposing fines, claims for maintenance payments, petitions, property disputes, documents on the sale and purchase of real estate and goods, waqf deeds, and others. A preliminary examination of the texts reveals that both Muslim and non-Muslim individuals participated in judicial proceedings, with Chinese names being particularly prominent. A number of European names also appear. The analysis of these documents provides valuable insights into the socio-economic and cultural dimensions of public life in Johor, since the Riau–Lingga Shariah Court exercised jurisdiction not only over Muslims but also over other population groups. The application of a comprehensive source-critical approach to this newly available body of material is certain to yield significant insights into the economic and legal history of the region, while also enabling the reconstruction of multiple dimensions of social life within the multicultural, multiethnic, and multireligious society of the Malay-Indonesian Archipelago at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Tinatin in “The Knight in the Panther’s Skin”
The etymology of Tinatin in the presented article is connected to the woman’s proper name (tina//tinah) prevalent in the East. It is of Persian origin, and its meaning is “a rose”. In the Islamic East, this proper name is also observed in the plural form (tin-āt). -āt is a suffix that produces the plural of feminine nouns in Arabic. In Georgian Tinatin (tinatin < tīn-āt-īn) the final -in possibly indicates the Arabic plural suffix. The double plural in “Tinatin” expresses the intensity of meaning. Double plural forms are often observed in Arabic dialects. Among them is Central Asian Arabic: faras-īn-āt – “horses”, naḥn-āt – “we”. It is noteworthy that both forms of this proper name (tīna//tīnāt), i.e., singular and plural, are simultaneously used in Arabic, and both are recorded in the dictionary of proper Arabic names. Classical Persian “gul” (“rose” – گل) is represented in late Middle Persian as gwl. This gwl, in its turn, must have originated from the restored form of Old Persian *vṛda (varda). In Proto Iranian, the initial form of this word is also assumed to be *vṛda. It is also possible that gl (gil) may be derived from the Middle Persian tīna. These versions are based on the alternation of v and g, which is allowed phonetically. Acad. G. Tsereteli connects the etymology of the word “gurji” with the Persian varčān, where it is obvious that v > g: vrčan > gurčān > gurğān > gurğ. The existence of the same form to denote Iveria and Gurgani indicates a common totemic name. Thus, the alternation v ~ g is also quite natural. In the authoritative Persian dictionary (Borhane 1342 AH: 547), tīna (تينا) is interpreted as “rose” (گل), which confirms the validity of the etymological research I have presented in connection with “Tina”.
Interferential Processes in Persian Compound Verbs in the Fereydanian Dialect
This study examines the formation and development of the Fereydanian dialect within a Persian-speaking environment. The analysis focuses on verb forms and instances of borrowing compound verbs, which clearly illustrate the multi-stage process of linguistic interference. The study shows how the dialect preserves the main characteristics of the Kartvelian languages while simultaneously acquiring structural features borrowed from Persian.
ფერეიდნელი ქართველის ახალი „მოგზაურობათა წიგნი“
„საფარ-ნამე“ ანუ „მოგზაურობის წიგნი“ სპარსულ მწერლობაში საუკუნეების მანძილზე მნიშვნელოვან ადგილს იკავებდა. გავიხსენოთ მე-11 საუკუნეში სხვადასხვა ქვეყანაში ნასერ ხოსროს 7-წლიანი მოგზაურობის წიგნი ანდა ყაჯარების პერიოდის მრავალი „საფარ-ნამე“, რომლებშიც საქართველოს აღწერაც ხშირად მოხვედრილა. მოგზაურობის მოყვარული ირანელები ახლაც არ იზარებენ საკუთარი შთაბეჭდილებების დაფიქსირებას და გავრცელებას ირანულ პერიოდიკასა თუ სოციალურ ქსელებში. ნაბეჭდი წიგნის სახით კი ჩვენს დროში სპარსულენოვან „საფარ-ნამეებს“ უფრო იშვიათად ვხვდებით. ამ მხრივ სასიამოვნო გამონაკლისს წარმოადგენს ფერეიდნელი ქართველის აბოლყასემ აჰმადი-მიანდაშთის წიგნი „ერთი ქართველის მოგზაურობა ზაგროსიდან კავკასიამდე“, რომელიც შარშან გამოსცა ქალაქ ყუმში მოქმედმა გამომცემლობამ „ჯეჰან-ე ანდიშე-ჲე ქუდაქან“ (ქართულად: ბავშვთა აზროვნების სამყარო). ამ მოგზაურობის წიგნში დეტალურადაა აღწერილი ავტორის 10-დღიანი ყოფნა საქართველოში 2018 წლის აპრილ-მაისში.
2025 წლის 15 აპრილს სრულდება 120 წელი გამოჩენილი ქართველი ენათმეცნიერის, ფინურ-უგორული ენების აღიარებული სპეციალისტის, საქართველოში მანქანური თარგმანის ერთ-ერთი ფუძემდებლის, პროფესორ მიხეილ პავლეს ძე ჩხაიძის დაბადებიდან. მისი ცხოვრება და მოღვაწეობა აღსავსე იყო მრავალფეროვანი მოვლენებითა და ისტორიებით, რაც მოკლედ ასე შეიძლება გადმოიცეს: მამათელი ღარიბი გლეხის ოჯახში გატარებული ბავშვობა, ლანჩხუთის ათწლედი, თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის სტუდენტობა (1924-1926 წწ.), აკადემიკოს ნიკო მარის ინიციატივით სწავლის გაგრძელება ლენინგრადის უნივერსიტეტში (1926-1930 წწ.), იქვე ასპირანტურის გავლა და დახელოვნება ზოგადი ენათმეცნიერების, ფინურ-უგორული ენებისა და რუსისტიკის განხრით (1930-1933 წწ.), საკანდიდატო დისერტაციის დაცვა (1936 წ.), მუშაობა საკავშირო აკადემიის ნ.მარის სახელობის ენისა და აზროვნების ინსტიტუტში (1934-1941 წწ.), ლენინგრადის უნივერსიტეტის ლექტორობა (1931-1941 წწ.), სამამულო ომში მოხალისედ წასვლა ლენინგრადის ფრონტზე (1941-1942 წწ.), ტყვედ ჩავარდნა და გერმანული საკონცენტრაციო ბანაკი (1942-1944 წწ.), ტყვეობიდან გაქცევა და პატრიზანობა საფრანგეთის ტერიტორიაზე (1944-1945 წწ.), თარჯიმნად მუშაობა ქ. ტულუზაში დისლოცირებულ პირველ საბჭოთა პარტიზანულ პოლკში (1945 წ.), დაბრუნება საბჭოთა კავშირში, დაპატიმრება ტყვეობაში ყოფნის ბრალდებით და 10-წლიანი პატიმრობის მისჯა (1945-1954 წწ.), განთავისუფლება პატიმრობიდან და სრული რეაბილიტაცია (1954-1955 წწ.), თელავის პედაგოგიური ინსტიტუტის რუსული ენისა და ლიტერატურის კათედრის გამგეობა (1954-1960 წწ.), პედაგოგიური საქმიანობის გაგრძელება თბილისის სახელმწიფო უნივერსიტეტის რუსული ენის კათედრაზე (1960-1961 წწ.), საქართველოს მეცნიერებათა აკადემიის აკად. ნ. მუსხელიშვილის სახელობის გამოთვლითი ცენტრის უფროსი მეცნიერმუშაკი (1961-1978 წწ.), სადოქტორო დისერტაციის დაცვა მოსკოვში (1966 წ.), აკად. გ. წერეთლის სახელობის აღმოსავლეთმცოდნეობის ინსტიტუტის თურქოლოგიის განყოფილების მკვლევარი (1978 წლიდან გარდაცვალებამდე - 1988 წ.). ამ სტრიქონების ავტორს პატივი ჰქონდა, 1982 წლიდან პროფ. მ. ჩხაიძისაგან ესწავლა ფინური ენა. ჩემთვის უაღრესად საინტერესო ეს რამდენიმეწლიანი ურთიერთობა გასცდა ფინური ენის სწავლებას. ბატონი მიხეილი მიყვებოდა აკად. ნ. მარის მოწაფეობის პერიოდზე, მისი ენობრივი მოძღვრების შესახებ, ენობრივი ურთიერთობების აქტუალურ საკითხებზე და ა.შ. ჩემთვის ცხადი იყო, რომ ბატონი მიხეილის ცხოვრებისეული გზა და მდიდარი სამეცნიერო მემკვიდრეობა იმსახურებდა გაცილებით მეტ ყურადღებასა და დაფასებას, ვიდრე იგი მოესწრო თავის სიცოცხლეში. მართალია, ქართულ პრესაში იბეჭდებოდა ცალკეული წერილები და გამოხმაურებები პროფ. მ. ჩხაიძის სამეცნიერო მიღწევების შესახებ, მაგრამ ისინი აკადემიური დონითა და რეზონანსით ვერ გაუტოლდებიან საქართველოს ფარგლებს გარეთ დაბეჭდილ წერილებს ამ მრავალმხრივი მეცნიერის შესახებ. მაგალითად, მისი დაბადების 110 წლისთავს მიეძღვნა გ. ლავრენტიევის და ო. ა. სერგეევის წერილები პრესტიჟულ ჟურნალებში “Linguistica Uralica” და «Финно-угроведение». განსაკუთრებით აფასებენ პროფ. მ. ჩხაიძის ღვაწლს რუსეთის ფედერაციის მარეთის რესპუბლიკაში. პროფ. მ. ჩხაიძის გარდაცვალების შემდეგ (1988 წ.) ქვეყანაში განვითარებულმა მოვლენებმა და მოულოდნელმა ცვლილებებმა ღვაწლმოსილი მკვლევრის სამეცნიერო მემკვიდრეობის პოპულარიზაციის თემა ძალაუნებურად უკან გადასწია და მას მხოლოდ 2015 წლიდან დავუბრუნდი. მომეცა საშუალება, გავცნობოდი პროფ. მ. ჩხაიძის ერთადერთ ვაჟს, აწ გარდაცვლილ ბატონ ალბერტსა (1940-2018) და მის მშვენიერ ოჯახს. ბატონ ალბერტთან ერთად დავიწყეთ მუშაობა პროფ. მ. ჩხაიძის არქივზე, რომელშიც მრავლად იყო ფართო სამეცნიერო საზოგადოებისათვის უცნობი მასალები. არჩევანი შევაჩერეთ ბატონი მიხეილის გამოუქვეყნებელ ნაშრომზე «Яфетидология или учение о происхождении языка по Н. Я. Марру (глазами его ученика)», რომელშიც ავტორი მაქსიმალურად გასაგებად, შეიძლება ითქვას, თანამედროვე მკითხველისათვის მისაღები ენით, კომპაქტურად გადმოსცემდა აკად. ნ. მარის ენობრივი მოძღვრების ძირითად პრინციპებს. ამ შრომატევად სამუშაოში ჩაერთო ილიუნის სოციალური და კულტურის კვლევების ინსტიტუტიც. საქმე კარგად მიდიოდა წინ და გამოსაცემი ნაშრომითა და თანმხლები საარქივო მასალებით მივმართეთ ილიაუნის გამომცემლობას. ამ ტექნიკურ ეტაპზე მოგვისწრო კოვიდპანდემიამ, პანდემიის შეზღუდვების მოხსნის შემდეგ კი, უკანასკნელ წლებში დაგროვილი სამეცნიერო პროექტების დასრულების აუცილებლობამ და ასევე სხვა გაუთვალისწინებელმა პრობლემებმა კვლავ შეგვაფერხეს. დღეისათვის გადაწყვეტით გვეთქმის, რომ პროფ. მ. ჩხაიძის ეს ნაშრომი და თანმხლები საარქივო მასალა დაიბეჭდება საიუბილეო 2025 წლის განმავლობაში, რითაც სამეცნიერო საზოგადოებას (არა მხოლოდ საქართველოში) კიდევ ერთხელ წარმოუდგება თვალწინ ამ დიდი ადამიანისა და მეცნიერის ღვაწლი. ამჯერად გ.წერეთლის აღმოსავლეთმცოდნეობის ინსტიტუტის სამეცნიერო ჟურნალისთვის დასაბეჭდად გამზადდა ბატონი მიხეილის ხელნაწერი სათაურით „ენათმეცნიერების რა დარგებში ვმუშაობდი“. მკითხველისათვის საინტერესო უნდა იყოს, თუ როგორ ახასიათებს იგი საკუთარ სამეცნიერო საქმიანობას. გასათვალისწინებელია, რომ ხელნაწერი არაა დათარიღებული, თუმცა ტექსტიდან ჩანს, რომ ის მოიცავს მეცნიერის მოღვაწეობის პერიოდს 1985 წლამდე. მცირე კორექტურის გარდა, ტექსტი ფაქტიურად უცვლელადაა გადმოტანილი, მაგრამ საჭირო გახდა სქოლიოში გარკვეული შენიშვნებისა და შესწორებების დამატება, რადგანაც ზოგიერთ შემთხვევაში უკვე ღრმად მოხუცებული ავტორი უნებლიედ არასრულად ან შეცდომით უთითებს ამა თუ იმ ნაშრომის სათაურსა თუ გამოცემის წელს. ამ სქოლიოების დამატებით კი მკითხველს საშუალება მიეცემა, დაინტერესების შემთხვევაში თავად მოიძიოს პროფესორ მიხეილ ჩხაიძის მრავალფეროვანი სამეცნიერო მემკვიდრეობის ნიმუშები ბიბლიოთეკებში თუ ინტერნეტში.